Introduction In 2011, Sudan was divided into the Republic of the Sudan and the Republic of South Sudan. The secession of South Sudan followed centuries of ethnic fighting between Arab-majority Muslims in the north and minority African tribes in the south who are Christian or practice indigenous religions.GlobalSecurity.org, “Sudan People’s Liberation Army (SPLA)/ Sudan People’s Liberation Movement (SPLM),” 2011, http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/para/spla.htm, Bureau of African Affairs, U.S. Department of State, “Background Note: Sudan: History: Independence,” 8 April 2011, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5424.htm, Francis M. Deng, “Sudan: Civil War and Genocide: Disappearing Christians of the Middle East,” Middle East Quarterly, vol. VIII, no. 1, Winter 2001, 13–21, http://www.meforum.org/22/sudan-civil-war-and-genocide, Robert O. Collins, “Chapter 2: The Society and Its Environment: Religion,” in Sudan: A Country Study, ed. Helen Chapin Metz (Washington, DC: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1991), http://countrystudies.us/sudan/47.htm Christianity—the religion of the kingdoms of Nubia, Magarra, and Alwa—was first introduced to northern Sudan in the sixth century C.E. Islam followed 100 years later. Islam was brought by traders from Egypt and neighboring countries in the Middle East and spread as Egyptians and Arabs expanded their domination southward in “search of slaves, gold, ivory, and taxation revenues.” By the 16th century, Christianity in the north had been wiped out and replaced by Islam. Although Islam forbids the enslavement of fellow Muslims, it does not forbid enslavement of those outside the Islamic faith.Francis M. Deng, “Sudan: Civil War and Genocide: Disappearing Christians of the Middle East,” Middle East Quarterly, vol. VIII, no. 1, Winter 2001, 13–21, http://www.meforum.org/22/sudan-civil-war-and-genocide, BBC, “Slavery in Islam,” 9 July 2009, http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/slavery_1.shtml Today, the majority of the population of Sudan are Sunni Muslim, although there is a small Christian minority.Robert O. Collins, “Chapter 2: The Society and Its Environment: Religion,” in Sudan: A Country Study, ed. Helen Chapin Metz (Washington, DC: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1991), http://countrystudies.us/sudan/47.htm, Central Intelligence Agency, “Sudan: People and Society: Religion,” in The World Factbook, 4 November 2011, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/su.html That centuries of invading Muslim armies were unable to deeply penetrate the southern region of Sudan is mostly due to a geographic barrier separating the north and south. Christianity, introduced by British missionaries to southern Sudan during the 19th century, has been embraced by people in the region, partly because of the positive socio-economic developments associated with the religion and partly as a way of resisting the spread of Islam.Francis M. Deng, “Sudan: Civil War and Genocide: Disappearing Christians of the Middle East,” Middle East Quarterly, vol. VIII, no. 1, Winter 2001, 13–21, http://www.meforum.org/22/sudan-civil-war-and-genocide Overview of Major Religions Islam Islam is a monotheistic religion, meaning its followers profess faith in a single God. In the Muslim community, or ummah, God is known as Allah (the Arabic term for God). The Arabic term islam means “to submit” or “to surrender.” A Muslim, therefore, is one who submits to the will of Allah. Muslims believe that Allah revealed his message through the angel Gabriel to the Prophet Muhammad, a merchant who lived in Arabia from 570 to 632 C.E. They consider Muhammad to be the last of a long line of prophets that included Abraham (Ibrahim), Moses (Musa), and Jesus (Esa). In this way, Muslims share some of the basic elements of the Judaic and Christian traditions. However, they believe that the message relayed by Muhammad is God’s final and definitive revelation to humankind. This message is recited in the Quran, which is the sacred scripture of Islam. Additional sacred texts include the Hadith, a collection of the sayings of Muhammad, and the Sunnah, which describes the practices of Islam by way of Muhammad’s example.Encyclopædia Britannica, “Islam: Fundamental Practices and Institutions of Islam: The Five Pillars,” 2014, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/295507/Islam, PBS, “Islam: Empire of Faith: People of the Book,” n.d., http://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/faithpeople.html, Clyde Mark, “CRS Report: Islam: A Primer,” Congressional Research Service, Federation of American Scientists, 19 February 2003, https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RS21432.pdf The essential beliefs and rites of the Islamic faith are encapsulated in the five pillars of Islam. The first and foundational pillar is the sincere recitation of the shahada, or Islamic creed: “There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is the prophet of Allah.” The remaining pillars include, the performance of ritual prayers five times a day; the giving of alms to the poor and needy (traditionally, through a tax on income); fasting during the holy month of Ramadan; and the undertaking of a pilgrimage to the Islamic holy city of Mecca to perform religious rituals.Encyclopædia Britannica, “Islam: Fundamental Practices and Institutions of Islam: The Five Pillars,” 2014, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/295507/Islam Muslims believe that Allah will judge them for their actions on earth, with the consequences of spending their afterlife in heaven or hell.BBC, “Religions: Islam: Basic Articles of Faith,” 19 July 2011, http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/beliefs/beliefs.shtml, Clyde Mark, “CRS Report: Islam: A Primer,” Congressional Research Service, Federation of American Scientists, 19 February 2003, https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RS21432.pdf Sunni and Shia Divide Islam has two major branches: Sunni and Shia. The two sects formed shortly after the initial spread of Islam in the 7th century C.E. They divided over disagreements about the selection process for the successor, or caliph, to the Prophet Muhammad, who died in 632 C.E. The Sunni, as they came to be known, believed that Muhammad had not chosen a successor. Consequently, they decided that the first caliph should be elected from among the leaders of the Muslim community. They selected Abu Bakr, Muhammad’s father-in-law, as the first caliph. The opposing group was later known as the Shia (which translates to “party of Ali”). They believed that Muhammad had designated his son-in-law, Ali ibn Abi Talib, as his successor. Consequently, they also believed that only Muhammad’s descendants held rightful claims to the caliphate. The unresolved issue of rightful succession created a deep divide between the two groups, leading to infighting and the assassination of Ali.Encyclopædia Britannica, “Islam: Fundamental Practices and Institutions of Islam: The Five Pillars,” 2014, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/295507/Islam While the two sects share the fundamental tenets of Islam, their separation resulted in a divergence of practices and beliefs. Over time, several additional sects emerged within the two major branches. Today, Sunnis comprise approximately 85% of the global Muslim community.BBC, “Religions: Islam: Beliefs: Sunni and Shi’a,” 19 August 2009, http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/subdivisions/sunnishia_1.shtml Most Sudanese are Sunni Muslims and follow the five core religious beliefs of Islam: (1) shahada, or the profession of one’s faith; (2) salat, or praying at five specific times each day; (3) zakat, or the giving of alms to the poor; (4) sawm, or fasting during the daylight hours of the month of Ramadan; and (5) hajj, or making a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in a lifetime, if possible.Robert O. Collins, “Chapter 2: The Society and Its Environment: Religion: Islam: Tenets and Practice,” in Sudan: A Country Study, ed. Helen Chapin Metz (Washington, DC: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1991), http://countrystudies.us/sudan/47.htm, John Gilchrist, “Muhammad and the Religion of Islam: Cultic Trends in Popular Islam,” 1986, http://answering-islam.org/Gilchrist/Vol1/8c.html Sufism Sufism, a major influence on Sudanese interpretations of Islam, is commonly referred to as Islamic mysticism.Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Ṣūfism,” 2012, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/571823/Sufism, GlobalSecurity.org, “Sufi Islam,” 2012, http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/intro/islam-sufi.htm Many Sufis follow Quranic admonitions to leave the material world behind and to pursue only eternal happiness.A. J. Arberry, “Chapter Eight: Mystical Moments,” in Aspects of Islamic Civilization: The Moslem World Depicted Through Its Literature (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1967), 218. Sufis seek direct spiritual insight without the intervention of an imam. Through meditation, chanting, or dancing, they seek a personal encounter with the divine.A. J. Arberry, “Chapter Eight: Mystical Moments,” in Aspects of Islamic Civilization: The Moslem World Depicted Through Its Literature (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1967), 218. Sufis also revere those thought to be endowed with divine grace.Sossie Andezian, “The Significance of Sufism in Algeria in the Aftermath of Independence,” PASSIA, 12 December 2002, http://www.passia.org/meetings/rsunit/2002/Sufism-minutes3.ht These venerated individuals, known as marabouts, may be teachers, scholars, healers, or people known for their piety or spirituality.Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Ṣūfism,” 2012, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/571823/Sufism Sufi influence can be seen in the numbers of Sudanese Muslims who belong to religious brotherhoods known as tariqas. Traditions such as the tariqa, as well as Muslim sainthood, demonstrate a mixture of Islam and African spiritualism.Abdel Salam Sidahmed and Alsir Sidahmed, Sudan: The Contemporary Middle East (London: Routledge, 2005), 1–29. For many Sudanese Muslims, the cult of the saint is important, although it is rejected by some. The cult of the saint is tied closely to the presence of religious orders. Many individuals who came to be considered saints when they died were founders or leaders of religious orders. They were thought to have baraka, a kind of spiritual power. After death, baraka intensifies; the deceased becomes a wali, or saint. The tomb and other places associated with the person who has died become sites of that person’s baraka. The deceased, now a saintly being, becomes the local guardian spirit.Robert O. Collins, “Chapter 2: The Society and Its Environment: Religion,” in Sudan: A Country Study, ed. Helen Chapin Metz (Washington, DC: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1991), http://countrystudies.us/sudan/47.htm Christianity Historically, the people of the southern province of Al Istiwai—the Madi, Moru, Azande, and Bari—were Christian.Robert O. Collins, “Chapter 2: The Society and Its Environment: Religion: Christianity,” in Sudan: A Country Study, ed. Helen Chapin Metz (Washington, DC: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1991), http://countrystudies.us/sudan/49.htm Roman Catholic and Anglican missionaries began providing social services in the 19th century during British colonization.Francis M. Deng, “Sudan: Civil War and Genocide: Disappearing Christians of the Middle East,” The Middle East Quarterly, vol. VIII, no. 1, Winter 2001, 13–21, http://www.meforum.org/22/sudan-civil-war-and-genocide, Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Sudan: Religion,” 2012, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/571417/Sudan/24342/Religion, Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, “Country Profile: Sudan,” December 2004, 5, http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Sudan.pdf Since the division of the country into north and south in 2011, Christians in the northern Republic of the Sudan are mostly found in Khartoum.Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, “Country Profile: Sudan,” December 2004, 5, http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Sudan.pdf The government’s estimate that only 3% of the population is Christian has been challenged. According to Bishop Ezekiel Kondo of the Episcopal Church of Sudan and the former chairman of the Sudanese Council of Churches, “We don’t know how this number was arrived to [sic]… We believe it is closer to 10 to 15% now.” Isma’il Kushkish, “Fewer to Celebrate Christmas in Sudan After South’s Split,” New York Times, 23 December 2011, http://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/24/world/africa/fewer-christians-to-celebrate-christmas-in-sudan-after-souths-split.html The Sudan People’s Liberation Movement-North (SPLM-N)—a still-active rebel group in Sudan that fought alongside those now in control of South Sudan—consists largely of Christian fighters. The violence that continues unabated in Sudan’s southern border states of South Kordofan and Blue Nile is centered on the government’s efforts to eradicate Christian influences in the predominantly Muslim nation. Because of al-Bashir regime’s systematic persecution of Christians and ongoing bombing campaigns targeting rebels in the southern border states, hundreds of thousands of Sudanese citizens have been displaced.Aymenn Jawad al Tamimi, “Sudan in Crisis,” Assyrian International News Agency, 1 November 2011, http://www.aina.org/news/20111101111713.htm, Michael Card, “Shariah Advances as Constitution Is Rewritten,” WorldNetDaily.com, 20 October 2011, http://www.wnd.com/index.php?fa=PAGE.view&pageId=358289 The Role of Religion in Government Since 1983, the Islamic legal code—known as Sharia—has been the law of the land in Sudan.Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, “Country Profile: Sudan,” December 2004, 15, http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Sudan.pdf, BBC News, “Sharia Law to be Tightened if Sudan Splits—President,” 19 December 2010, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12033185 Islamic law is based on the Quran and the time-honored sayings attributed to Muhammad contained in the hadith. Islamic law governs transgressions against society as well as all aspects of personal and family life, including hygiene, marriage, divorce, and inheritance.Mohamed H. Fadlalla, Short History of Sudan (Lincoln, NE: iUniverse, 2004), 86. The imposition of Sharia throughout the country in 1983 was one of the main causes of the renewed civil war, which did not end until 2005 when the newly drafted interim constitution exempted the three southern provinces (now in the independent country of South Sudan).Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, “Country Profile: Sudan,” December 2004, 15, http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Sudan.pdf, BBC News, “Sharia Law to be Tightened if Sudan Splits—President,” 19 December 2010, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12033185, Eric Hooglund, “Chapter 4: Government and Politics: The Legal System,” in Sudan: A Country Study, ed. Helen Chapin Metz (Washington, DC: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1991), http://countrystudies.us/sudan/65.htm Since 2005, the government has relaxed the enforcement of Sharia in the north, although President al-Bashir has threatened to once again vigorously implement this legal code.Ben Wedeman, “Not All in Northern Sudan Embrace Islamic Law,” CNN, 12 January 2011, http://articles.cnn.com/2011-01-12/world/sudan.islamic.law_1_islamic-law-sudan-council-sharia?_s=PM:WORLD The government has continued to pursue policies of Arabization and Islamization, placing restrictions on religious practices, political association, and freedom of speech and assembly.Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, “Country Profile: Sudan,” December 2004, 15, http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Sudan.pdf If the government proceeds with stated plans to rewrite the nation’s constitution to more strictly comply with Sharia law, international observers fear that violations of human rights in Sudan will increase.Aymenn Jawad al_Tamimi, “Sudan in Crisis,” Assyrian International News Agency, 1 November 2011, http://www.aina.org/news/20111101111713.htm, Michael Card, “Shariah Advances as Constitution Is Rewritten,” WorldNetDaily.com, 20 October 2011, http://www.wnd.com/index.php?fa=PAGE.view&pageId=358289 In the past, Christian leaders have complained that the government has discriminated against Christians seeking employment and has used the bureaucracy to make the building of new churches and conducting outreach efforts difficult.Isma’il Kushkish, “Fewer to Celebrate Christmas in Sudan After South’s Split,” New York Times, 23 December 2011, http://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/24/world/africa/fewer-christians-to-celebrate-christmas-in-sudan-after-souths-split.html Influence of Religion in Daily Life Although Sunnis generally view their branch of Islam as orthodox and all other branches as heresy, the practice of Sunni Islam in Sudan is not uniform and includes non-Islamic rites that vary according to region.Jonathan P. Berkey, The Formation of Islam: Religion and Society in the Near East 600–1800 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 141., Robert O. Collins, “Chapter 2: The Society and Its Environment: Religion: Islam: Tenets and Practice,” in Sudan: A Country Study, ed. Helen Chapin Metz (Washington, DC: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1991), http://countrystudies.us/sudan/47.htm As a result, Sudan’s many other religious groups have been marginalized in Darfur, South Kordofan, and Blue Nile by the ruling Sunni elites.Freedom House, Freedom in the World, “Sudan: Rule of Law,” 2015, https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2015/sudan Since 2013, authorities have bulldozed or closed churches in Khartoum and Omdurman. Church affiliated nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) have been closed down, Christian workers have been expelled, and evangelical Christians have been arrested.Freedom House, Freedom in the World, “Sudan: Freedom of Expression and Belief,” 2015, https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2015/sudan In 2014, Meriam Yahia Ibrahim, a pregnant Christian woman, was sentenced to death for leaving Islam (apostasy) and converting to Christianity. After strong condemnation of this action by the international community, she was finally released and fled with her child to the United States.Freedom House, Freedom in the World, “Sudan: Freedom of Expression and Belief,” 2015, https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2015/sudan Religious Conventions and Gender Roles Since 1983, Islamic law (Sharia) has been the foundation of the legal system in Sudan.Francis M. Deng, “Sudan: Civil War and Genocide: Disappearing Christians of the Middle East,” Middle East Quarterly, vol. VIII, no. 1, Winter 2001, 13–21, http://www.meforum.org/22/sudan-civil-war-and-genocide, Robert O. Collins, “Chapter 2: The Society and Its Environment: Education,” in Sudan: A Country Study, ed. Helen Chapin Metz (Washington, DC: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1991), http://countrystudies.us/sudan/51.htm, W. Stephen Howard, “Chapter 18: Chalk and Dust: Teachers’ Lives in Rural Sudan,” in Everyday Life in the Muslim Middle East, eds. Donna Lee Bowen and Evelyn A. Early (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2002), 190. This law requires strict gender segregation and virtually eliminates women’s legal rights to ownership, freedom of movement, and choice of clothing. Although Sudanese women are permitted to possess property, they are legally required to allow their husbands or male guardians to manage it, even if their property is inherited. Further, women do not have access to bank loans and credit, which are reserved for men only.Implementing Gender Quotas: Spotlight on Sudan, “Sharia Law and Women,” n.d., http://www.mwcoalition.org/quotas/id10.html Sudanese women also experience limited mobility and public harassment. Sharia gives government agents the right to enforce public morality and limit women’s freedom of movement. All women, including non-Muslims, are required to wear a veil. Women in Khartoum are required to wear opaque clothing from head to toe. Women who do not conform are subjected to detention, fines, and lashings. Further, gender segregation is practiced in all public spaces, such as public buses where women must stand separately in the back of the bus.Implementing Gender Quotas: Spotlight on Sudan, “Sharia Law and Women,” n.d., http://www.mwcoalition.org/quotas/id10.html With such limited resources, limited movement, and the threat of public harassment, Sudanese women do not generally participate in public life.Implementing Gender Quotas: Spotlight on Sudan, “Sharia Law and Women,” n.d., http://www.mwcoalition.org/quotas/id10.html Religious Holidays and Events Islam Ramadan is the name for the ninth month of the Islamic lunar calendar commemorating the time during which the Archangel Gabriel revealed the Quran to the Prophet Muhammad.Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Ramadan,” 2012, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/490415/Ramadan Throughout the month of Ramadan Muslims refrain from eating, smoking, and engaging in sexual activity during daylight hours.Victoria Kennick Urubshurow, Introducing World Religions (New York: Routledge, 2008), 157. In Sudan, all Muslims except travelers, pregnant women, the sick, and children under 13 years of age are required to observe the fast. Although non-Muslims do not have to fast, they should avoid eating, drinking, or smoking while in the presence of Muslims during daylight hours. The end of the daily fast during Ramadan comes each day at sunset and is marked by a cannon blast (mou’azzin), followed by a holiday mood and festive feast (fatour).U.S. Embassy in Khartoum, “About Sudan: Holidays in Sudan,” 5 January 2012, http://sudan.usembassy.gov/holidays2.html Will you celebrate the festival? Visitor: intoo HatiHtifiloo bil-'eed usboo' aj-jaay daa? Will you celebrate the festival? Local: aywa Yes. 1 The month of Ramadan ends with the sighting of the new moon, which signals the commencement of the festival known as Eid al-Fitr or Eid al-Ramadan (“the Little Feast”). During this three-to four-day celebration, Muslims feast and visit family, friends, and neighbors. In Sudan, this festival also is known by the Turkish name Ramadan Bairam, one of the lasting linguistic remnants of the Turkish conquest of Sudan in 1821.U.S. Embassy in Khartoum, “About Sudan: Holidays in Sudan,” 5 January 2012, http://sudan.usembassy.gov/holidays2.html, Q++Studio, “Sudan Public Holidays 2012,” n.d., http://www.qppstudio.net/publicholidays2012/sudan.htm\ Another important Muslim holiday in Sudan is Eid al-Adha or Eid al-Kabier (“the Feast of the Sacrifice” or “the Big Feast”), which also is known by the Turkish name Kurban Bairam. This four-to five-day holiday occurs in the 10th month of the Islamic lunar calendar and commemorates the pilgrimage to Mecca, as well as Abraham’s willingness to sacrifice his son. The holiday is known as Eid al-Adha in other Muslim countries, and it is celebrated in Sudan by slaughtering a ram, feasting, and visiting family, friends, and neighbors.U.S. Embassy in Khartoum, “About Sudan: Holidays in Sudan,” 5 January 2012, http://sudan.usembassy.gov/holidays2.html, Q++Studio, “Sudan Public Holidays 2012,” n.d., http://www.qppstudio.net/publicholidays2017/sudan.htm, BBC News, “Eid ul Adha,” 9 July 2009, http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/holydays/eiduladha.shtml Although Moulid al-Nabi (“the Prophet’s Birthday”) is not an orthodox Islamic holiday, it is also celebrated in Sudan. The event occurs about 90 days following Eid al-Kabier and involves large public celebrations at Saggana Square in Khartoum.U.S. Embassy in Khartoum, “About Sudan: Holidays in Sudan,” 5 January 2012, http://sudan.usembassy.gov/holidays2.html, Q++Studio, “Sudan Public Holidays 2012,” n.d., http://www.qppstudio.net/publicholidays2012/sudan.htm\ Because these Islamic observances are based on the lunar calendar rather than the Western solar calendar, their dates change in relation to the full moon and thus move up about 11 days each year.Islam 786, “Islamic Calendar,” 2006, http://www.islam786.org/islamiccalendar.htm#26220202 Would you like something to eat? Visitor: tafaDal bil-akl? Would you like something to eat? Local: laa ana Saayim No, thank you. I am fasting. 2 Christianity Christmas and Easter were public holidays in Sudan prior to the 2011 secession of the southern region, but the status of these holidays is now unclear. According to one political science professor at the University of Khartoum, the government no longer recognizes Christmas as a general holiday, although members of Western churches will be allowed to observe the occasion.Isma’il Kushkish, “Fewer to Celebrate Christmas in Sudan After South’s Split,” New York Times, 23 December 2011, http://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/24/world/africa/fewer-christians-to-celebrate-christmas-in-sudan-after-souths-split.html, National Association of College and University Business Officers, “Sudan (Republic of the),” International Resource Center, n.d., http://irc.nacubo.org/countries/Pages/Sudan.aspx The Christmas season in Sudan is based on the Western solar calendar, begins on 25 December, and continues until 9 January. Q++Studio, “Sudan Public Holidays 2012,” n.d., http://www.qppstudio.net/publicholidays2012/sudan.htm\ It is a festive time during which goats and bulls are slaughtered as part of the celebration. On Christmas Eve, people attend church services and wear their best clothes. On 25 December, families exchange gifts and cook a big meal for the occasion, which might be turkey, lamb, or pigeon. Christmas is a time for celebrating, visiting with friends and family, and indulging in favorite foods. Easter is celebrated after 40 days of Lenten fasting during March or April. In Sudan, Lenten fasting can be similar to Muslim fasting during Ramadan, when nothing is eaten between dawn and dusk. The fast is broken after the sun sets. People attend mass, then celebrate in public gardens with dancing and traditional music. Children paint eggs and families spend time together outdoors.Gamal Nkrumah, “Take a Pew,” Al-Ahram, 27 April 2003, http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2003/636/li1.htm, Q++Studio, “Sudan Public Holidays 2012,” n.d., http://www.qppstudio.net/publicholidays2012/sudan.htm\ Buildings of Worship Mosques Mosques serve as a place of worship and play a significant cultural and educational role in Sudanese society. Some mosques hold lectures and conduct classes for studying the Quran, while others house administrative offices for universities. A few provide housing for students.Embassy of the Republic of the Sudan, “Mosques,” n.d., http://sudanembassy.co.uk/index.php/component/content/article/39-about-sudan/travel-and-tourism/331-mosques The Omdurman Grand Mosque was built in 1910 and is one of the oldest mosques in Omdurman. The mosque originally housed a Quranic institute that provided instruction in religion and Arabic. After the Omdurman Islamic Sciences Institute was established, the mosque began holding classes for teaching the Quran and recitation.Embassy of the Republic of the Sudan, “Mosques,” n.d., http://sudanembassy.co.uk/index.php/component/content/article/39-about-sudan/travel-and-tourism/331-mosques How do I get to the mosque? Visitor: keyf aSel ila al-masjid? How do I get to the mosque? Local: ta'aal awareek I will show you. 3 Christian Churches The majority of Sudanese Christians lived in the states that seceded to form South Sudan. However, some Christians remain in Sudan, and one can still find Christian churches in Khartoum and other communities. Catholic, Presbyterian, Coptic, and Episcopal churches have been active in Sudan.Serving in Mission, “Sudan,” 2011, http://www.sim.org/index.php/country/SD Where is the church? Visitor: mumkin tu wareenee weyn al-kaneesa hina? Where is the church? Local: aywa khardeyk hinaak Yes, I will take you there. 4 Behavior in Places of Worship Mosques When foreigners visit a mosque for the first time, they should ask for permission to enter. Before entering the building under normal circumstances, remove your shoes at the doorway and place them in the designated area. Office of the Deputy Chief of Staff for Intelligence, T2COM DCSINT Handbook No. 2: Arab Cultural Awareness: 58 Factsheets (Ft. Leavenworth, KS: U.S. Army Training and Doctrine Command, 2006), http://www.fas.org/irp/agency/army/arabculture.pdf May I enter the mosque? Visitor: mumkin aKhush al-masjid? May I enter the mosque? Local: aywa Yes. 5 Should I remove my shoes? Visitor: aTali' jismatee? Should I remove my shoes? Local: aywa Yes. 6 Men should dress conservatively. Some Muslim men wear a jallabiyah, a white gown. Native Sudanese usually wear loose turbans.Eleanor Stanford, “Sudan,” EveryCulture, 2012, http://www.everyculture.com/Sa-Th/Sudan.html Anyone under the influence of alcohol should not enter a mosque. An intoxicated person found in a mosque would be evicted immediately. Eating, drinking, or making noise are not tolerated. The presence of dogs in mosques is considered a desecration; thus, using dogs to search within a mosque should be avoided.Cyril Glassé, The New Encyclopedia of Islam, 3rd ed. (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2008), 135., Hounslow Jamia Masjid & Islamic Centre, “Etiquettes of Visiting a Mosque,” 2009, http://www.hounslowmasjid.co.uk/page2/page10/page30/page30.html Do I need to cover my head? Visitor: ana maHtaaj aghaTee raasee? Do I need to cover my head? Local: aywa Yes. 7 Churches Visitors to churches should dress modestly and avoid wearing clothing that is revealing or unclean. Shorts and mini-skirts are not appropriate wear. Appropriate dress includes clean shirts and long pants for men, and skirts or pants along with blouses or sweaters for women. Visitors should remove hats before entering, and once inside the church, refrain from touching paintings or statues.Fr. William Saunders, “Appropriate Behavior in Church,” Catholic Education Resource Center, 2003, http://www.catholiceducation.org/en/culture/catholic-contributions/appropriate-behavior-in-church.html, Pamela Ellgen, “Protestant Church Etiquette,” Opposing Views, n.d.,http://people.opposingviews.com/protestant-church-etiquette-1949.html Am I dressed appropriately? Visitor: Hasa ana laabis kweys? Am I dressed appropriately? Local: aywa inta laabis kweys Yes, you are. 8