Introduction The population of Sudan is extremely diverse. Sudanese are likely to identify themselves according to their local or regional surroundings rather than their nationality. Decades of conflict have reinforced this identification. Local identities are preserved through social institutions, including marriages within the group and community-based networks, wherein even distantly related individuals are obligated to provide assistance to one another.John Obert Voll and Sarah Potts Voll, The Sudan: Unity and Diversity in a Multicultural State (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1985). These social networks expand, radiating out from the family to include additional layers of Sudanese society with which to identify.ProQuest, “The Republic of Sudan: Family,” CultureGrams Online Edition, 2016., Abdu Mukhtar, “Background to the Formation of Sudanese Identity,” (paper, International University of Africa, Khartoum, Sudan), https://www.google.com/search?q=iua.edu&ie=utf-8&oe=utf-8&aq=t&rls=org.mozilla:en-US:official&client=firefox-a&channel=sb The dynamism of community ties and local identities is not found at the national level. A minority population claiming Arab descent dominates the military-controlled government and national identity. This group maintains an identity based on pan-Arabism and Islamist governance.Abdu Mukhtar, “Background to the Formation of Sudanese Identity,” (paper, International University of Africa, Khartoum, Sudan), https://www.google.com/search?q=iua.edu&ie=utf-8&oe=utf-8&aq=t&rls=org.mozilla:en-US:official&client=firefox-a&channel=sb However, this identity does not reflect that of the majority population and has contributed to the tensions that have led to continued fighting within the country. Because of the gap between self-identification and national identity, it is difficult to discuss matters of tradition. However, some commonalities cut across different local, regional, and national identities.Amir Ahmad, “Ending Sudan’s Identity Crisis,” 10 June 2011, https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2011/jun/10/sudan-identity-crisis-north-south Formulaic Codes of Politeness Greetings Greetings in Sudan differ from Western greetings and can be more involved. Friends may greet each other with smiles and a tender shove to the shoulder. After shaking hands, they will exchange more formal greetings. However, an outsider is greeted with a simple handshake.Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada, “Cultural Information—Sudan,” 15 October 2009, http://www.intercultures.ca/cil-cai/ci-ic-eng.asp?iso=sd#cn-2 Kisses on the cheek, a tap on the shoulder, or a hug are normally acceptable nonverbal greetings. Hugging is reserved for family members or close friends of the same gender.Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada, “Cultural Information—Sudan,” 15 October 2009, http://www.intercultures.ca/cil-cai/ci-ic-eng.asp?iso=sd#cn-2 The Sudanese have a great deal of respect for their guests. As a guest, you should accept their hospitality willingly. Guests are treated courteously and greeted with food and beverages. If you are an important guest, a sheep might be slaughtered in your honor. Do not refuse an offer of a beverage, food, or tea. It is the Sudanese way of welcoming a guest, and refusing this hospitality is considered offensive.Bea Sandler, “The Sudan,” in The African Cookbook (New York: Citadel Press, 1993), 15. Eye Contact and Personal Space Eye contact during conversation is considered important, even between genders. However, Sudanese might avoid looking a visitors in the eye. Young people tend to avoid direct eye contact when addressing their elders. Engaging in extended, direct eye contact with members of the opposite sex is regarded as deeply inappropriate.ProQuest, “The Republic of Sudan: Gestures,” CultureGrams Online Edition, 2016. Sudanese tend to stand quite close while speaking to members of the same sex. When speaking to members of the opposite sex, one should keep some physical distance. Sudanese may touch each other on the shoulder or arm when speaking someone of the same sex.AFK Travel, “Business Etiquette 101: Tips for Travelers in Sudan,” 23 June 2014, https://afktravel.com/60498/10-tips-business-etiquette-sudan/ Male/Female Interaction Sudanese society is deeply patriarchal. Men hold authority over women, children and property and marriages are polygynous (men can have more than one wife). While a Muslim man is free to marry a non-Muslim woman, all Muslim women are only permitted to marry a Muslim man.Liv Tønnessen, “Feminist Interlegalities and Gender Justice in Sudan: The Debate on CEDAW and Islam,” Religion and Human Rights 6, no. 1 (2011): 25–39, doi: 10.1163/187103211X543635. In Darfur and other areas of Western Sudan, a man’s social status is tied to the number of wives and children he has. Sudanese men are responsible for financially supporting and leading the family. Sudanese women take on the traditional role of cooking, cleaning, childcare, and helping the men with farming.ProQuest, “The Republic of Sudan: Family,” CultureGrams Online Edition, 2016. Women might also collect firewood, fetch water, and take care of other household chores, depending on where the family lives. In rural areas, boys are considered an economic asset and are preferred over girls, who are considered an economic liability. In urban areas, women have entered the job market, which has helped change traditional attitudes about female children.ProQuest, “The Republic of Sudan: Family,” CultureGrams Online Edition, 2016. Many Sudanese girls continue to face the practice of female genital mutilation (FGM). The roots of this practice are tied to cultural traditions related to ideas of modesty, morality, and family honor. In Sudan, girls who are subjected to this practice are considered to be more chaste and morally pure.Amira Ahmed, “The Context of Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) in Sudan: An Overview,” December 2011, (Final Report, Evaluation of Norwegian Church Aid’s (NCA) Support to GBV Projects Implemented by SNCTP in Mayo Farm, 2004-2010), 12-17, https://www.kirkensnodhjelp.no/contentassets/6bb63d724adf49e2ad68b607d648ab51/sudan-gender-evaluation-final-report.pdf However, there has been a gradual shift in social attitudes towards FGM in Sudan, largely driven by the government, NGOs, and other stakeholders. Yet, it is still persists, especially in poor rural areas.Amira Ahmed, “The Context of Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) in Sudan: An Overview,” December 2011, (Final Report, Evaluation of Norwegian Church Aid’s (NCA) Support to GBV Projects Implemented by SNCTP in Mayo Farm, 2004-2010), 12-17, https://www.kirkensnodhjelp.no/contentassets/6bb63d724adf49e2ad68b607d648ab51/sudan-gender-evaluation-final-report.pdf With the imposition of Sharia across Sudan, the patriarchy has increasingly limited women’s roles in Sudanese society.Countries and Their Cultures, “Sudanese: Family Life,” n.d., http://www.everyculture.com/wc/Rwanda-to-Syria/Sudanese.html Women face extensive discrimination and are denied the same rights as men in marriage, inheritance, and divorce. For example, men inherit all the property of a deceased wife, yet a woman can only inherit an eighth of her deceased husband’s estate. Additionally, women who report a rape or are accused of adultery are typically charged with a crime. If convicted, they face death by stoning, while men facing similar charges are released after denial of their participation.Human Rights Watch, “Sudan: Ban Death by Stoning,” 31 May 2012, https://www.hrw.org/news/2012/05/31/sudan-ban-death-stoning Hospitality and Gift Giving Core Sudanese values are hospitality and generosity, particularly in rural areas. Not welcoming guests, whether strangers or friends, is considered shameful. Visiting friends and family is an important aspect of Sudanese culture, with most visits taking place at home. In rural areas, spontaneous, frequent visits are common. In cities, however, busy schedules mean that advance arrangements for visiting need to be made.ProQuest, “Republic of Sudan: Visiting,” CultureGrams Online Edition, 2016. Weekends (Friday and Saturday) are the most popular for visiting. It is polite to visit in midmorning or evening since people might be sleeping at other times of the day. Often, entire families will visit. Children are expected to play away from adults. Men and women socialize separately. The average visit lasts for one or two hours, but first-time visitors should only stay for a short time.ProQuest, “Republic of Sudan: Visiting,” CultureGrams Online Edition, 2016. Visitors should remove their shoes before entering the home. Punctuality is not critical and guests often arrive late.Embassy of the United States, Khartoum Sudan,” n.d., https://sudan.usembassy.gov/sudanese_cultural_customs.html, Allo Expat Sudan, “Sudan Customs and Etiquette,” n.d., http://www.sudan.alloexpat.com/sudan_information/customs_etiquettes_sudan.php Guests should dress well, as it is a sign of respect and appreciation.Sandile Swana, “Why Africa Could Do With a Dose of Punctuality and Cleanliness,” University of Witwatersrand, News24, 30 May 2016, http://www.news24.com/Africa/News/why-africa-could-do-with-a-dose-of-punctuality-and-cleanliness-20160530-2 It is considered rude to decline offers of food in a Sudanese home. Always accept what is offered. It is polite to engage in conversation during the meal. Avoid topics such as politics and religion. Appropriate topics include the weather or sports.Global Affairs, “Cultural Information: Communication,” n.d., http://www.intercultures.ca/cil-cai/ci-ic-eng.asp?iso=sd#cn-2 Hospitality customs are an important part of entertaining and daily life in Sudan. As a dinner guest, you will be offered abre or tabrihana, a nonalcoholic and slightly sweetened fruit drink as refreshment. Guests are seated on pillows, which may be decorated with ostrich feathers, at a low, bare table. Diners’ knees are covered with large cloths, which are used in place of napkins. Water is poured over the guests’ hands from an ebrig, a copper pitcher; the water is caught in another copper bowl or basin, and a towel is used to dry one’s hands.Bea Sandler, “The Sudan,” in The African Cookbook (New York: Citadel Press, 1993), 16. The host signals the start of the dinner. A first course of soup is served in individual bowls brought in on a large copper tray. After the soup, the tray is removed and a second large tray is brought in with five or six different main course dishes. If the guests are considered important, a lamb may have been slaughtered. Typically, one eats with the right hand, without the aid of utensils, although spoons may be provided. Everyone eats from the same dish, using pieces of bread to scoop up the food.ProQuest, “The Republic of Sudan: Eating,” CultureGrams Online Edition, 2016. When the main course is served, small plates or bowls are also brought in, and portions of salad are served.Bea Sandler, “The Sudan,” in The African Cookbook (New York: Citadel Press, 1993), 16. Hands are washed again, and dessert is served, which may be crème caramela or peeled fruit that has been cut into thin pieces.Embassy of the Republic of Sudan, Consular Services, “Sudanese Food,” 2016, http://www.sudanembassy.org/index.php/sudanese-food Although no beverages are served with dinner, one can ask for water. Following the meal, guhwah (Sudanese-style coffee) or spiced tea is served, and sandalwood incense is lit.Bea Sandler, “The Sudan,” in The African Cookbook (New York: Citadel Press, 1993), 16–17. Gifts are not normally exchanged in Sudan except on special occasions, such as a wedding or a birth. It is inappropriate to give a gift during difficult times, such as after a death, during sickness, or after an accident.Global Affairs Canada, “Cultural Information: Sudan,” n.d., https://www.international.gc.ca/cil-cai/country_insights-apercus_pays/ci-ic_sd.aspx?lang=eng Eating Habits / Types of Food Eating Customs Rural Sudanese generally eat two meals a day. If they can afford it, urban Sudanese will enjoy three meals a day. Many will start-off their day with a cup of tea, followed by coffee. Breakfast is eaten between 10:30 and 11:30, and might consist of beans, bread, eggs, and cheese. Lunch is the main meal of the day, often consisting of soup, rice, bread, and vegetables.ProQuest, “Republic of Sudan: Eating,” CultureGrams Online Edition, 2016. Urban Sudanese often do not eat lunch together because of busy schedules, but will gather for traditional meals on the weekend (Friday and Saturday).ProQuest, “Republic of Sudan: Eating,” CultureGrams Online Edition, 2016. Dinner is usually light, consisting of only milk and cake or bread, but sometimes a meal similar to breakfast is eaten. Women and girls eat separately from men and boys. Meals are eaten around a large communal tray with the right hand, using flat bread or a stiff porridge.Country Reports, “Sudan Facts,” 2011, http://www.countryreports.org/country/Sudan.htm, ProQuest, “Republic of Sudan: Eating,” CultureGrams Online Edition, 2016. Types of Food Sudanese foods tend to be very simple, as are the seasonings, which usually consist of salt, pepper, or lemon juice. Sorghum, a type of highly drought resistant cereal grass that can be ground into flour, is a staple in Sudan. A special type of bread known as kissra is essential in Sudanese cuisine.Embassy of the Republic of Sudan, Consular Services, “Sudanese Food,” 2016, http://www.sudanembassy.org/index.php/sudanese-food Kissra is made of either sorghum, wheat, or corn flour, and is eaten with stew, the main dish of Sudan. Sudanese stew consists of dried meat, dried onions, spices, and peanut butter, and other additions, such as milk or yogurt.Embassy of the Republic of Sudan, Consular Services, “Sudanese Food,” 2016, http://www.sudanembassy.org/index.php/sudanese-food Two well-known stews are Niaimiya ,with okra and Miris made from sheep fat, onions, and dried okra. Asseeda Dukhun, a thick porridge made of sorghum, wheat, or corn flour, or kissra, is served with stew.Embassy of the Republic of Sudan, Consular Services, “Sudanese Food,” 2016, http://www.sudanembassy.org/index.php/sudanese-food Other types of asseeda are made from sorghum or wheat flour, dukhun, and dates. These types of porridge are served with milk, sugar, and margarine.Embassy of the Republic of Sudan, Consular Services, “Sudanese Food,” 2016, http://www.sudanembassy.org/index.php/sudanese-food Food varies by ethnicity, tribe, and region. Millet porridge and ful massari, or ful medames (dishes made of mashed fava beans), are popular breakfast foods in the north. Wheat is another staple of the northern area and is used to make gourrassa, a round, thick bread.Patricia Levy and Zawiah Abdul Latif, Sudan, Cultures of the World series (New York: Marshall Cavendish Benchmark, 2008), 129. Moukhbaza is a popular dish in the east. It is made from banana paste and reflects the influence of Ethiopian cuisine. In the west, where cattle are prevalent, dairy products provide vital nourishment. Cereals are used to thicken stews made with dried meats. A stew of cooked dried fish is often added to sorghum porridge. The Nile perch is a popular fish found in the Nile Delta and around Khartoum. It is usually fried and served with red peppers.Paul Clammer, Sudan, 2nd ed. (Guilford, CT: Globe Pequot Press, 2009), 71. Is this food fresh? Visitor: al-akl daa kweys? Is this food fresh? Local: aywa Yes. 9 Sweets are popular in Sudan. Crème caramela is a favorite dessert. Other dessert offerings include zabadi, yogurt served with a heavy syrup, and hoshab, a chilled sweet made of chopped bananas, raisins, and figs. Peanuts (Ful Sudani) are a popular snack and are often made into macaroons.Embassy of the Republic of Sudan, “Sudanese Food,” n.d., http://www.sudanembassy.org/index.php/sudanese-food Tea and strong coffee are popular in Sudan. Jebena sudanese is a specialty coffee drink. Coffee beans are pan-roasted in a special pot over charcoal, then ground with cloves and other spices. The coffee mixture is steeped in hot water, strained through a special sieve made of fresh grass, and served in small cups. Alcohol is banned by Islamic law, but bootleg alcoholic beverages are common, including beer, wine, and araqi, a gin distilled from fermented dates.Bea Sandler, “The Sudan,” in The African Cookbook (New York: Citadel Press, 1993), 15., Lucy Fleming, “Sudan’s Date-Gin Brewers Thrive Despite Sharia,” BBC News, 29 April 2010, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8638670.stm Dress Codes Sudanese dress conservatively and consider it important to dress nicely at all times of the day. Men and boys typically wear Western-style pants, jeans, button shirts, and T-shirts. However, rural men and some urban men wear the traditional Sudanese jalabiya (long white robe) with an imma (turban).ProQuest, “Republic of Sudan: Personal Appearances,” CultureGrams Online Edition, 2016. Beja men wear a jalabiya with a collar and a sediaria, a colored pocketed vest.National Clothing, “Home: National Dress of Sudan,” n.d., http://nationalclothing.org/35-nationalclothing/africa/sudan/49-national-dress-of-sudan-men-prefer-loose-fitting-robes-and-women-use-wrap-around-cloths.html, Encyclopedia.com, “Beja,” 2016, http://www.encyclopedia.com/places/spain-portugal-italy-greece-and-balkans/spanish-and-portuguese-political-geography/beja Women typically wear a thawb , which is a loose fitting gown made of several feet of fabric that is draped over the head and then wrapped around the bodies, with the remainder falling to the ankle.ProQuest, “Republic of Sudan: Personal Appearances,” CultureGrams Online Edition, 2016., Richard Dixon, “What Kind of Clothes Do The Women Wear in Sudan?” Leaf, n.d., https://www.leaf.tv/articles/what-kind-of-clothes-do-the-women-wear-in-sudan/ In Khartoum, married women wear a white thawb to work, and when not at work they wear brightly colored thawbs.ProQuest, “Republic of Sudan: Personal Appearances,” CultureGrams Online Edition, 2016. Common accessories include high heels with matching handbags, and gold jewelry. Unmarried women typically wear blouses and long skirts with a hijab, or Islamic headscarf, which is locally known as a tarha.Richard Dixon, “What Kind of Clothes Do The Women Wear in Sudan?” Leaf, n.d., https://www.leaf.tv/articles/what-kind-of-clothes-do-the-women-wear-in-sudan/ Unmarried women sometimes wear an abaya, which is a long black robe, and a matching headscarf.ProQuest, “Republic of Sudan: Personal Appearances,” CultureGrams Online Edition, 2016. In contrast, Beja women are known for braiding their hair with small gold rings in some of the braids.ProQuest, “Republic of Sudan: Personal Appearances,” CultureGrams Online Edition, 2016., National Clothing, “Home: National Dress of Sudan,” n.d., http://nationalclothing.org/35-nationalclothing/africa/sudan/49-national-dress-of-sudan-men-prefer-loose-fitting-robes-and-women-use-wrap-around-cloths.html Beja women (and men) often have three vertical decorative scars on their cheeks, and women wear decorative beads and large nose rings.Encyclopedia.com, “Beja,” 2016, http://www.encyclopedia.com/places/spain-portugal-italy-greece-and-balkans/spanish-and-portuguese-political-geography/beja Although some women wear Western clothing, to do so challenges strict Sharia interpretations of feminine modesty. This often results in women being placed on trial and punished for failing to dress according to the government’s strict interpretation of Sharia law.Nicole Gordon, “What Types of Clothes Do They Wear In Sudan?” People of Our Everyday Life, n.d., http://peopleof.oureverydaylife.com/types-clothes-do-wear-sudan-8845.html Nonreligious Celebrations Major nonreligious holidays observed in Sudan include Independence Day on January 1, which commemorates the birth of the Sudanese Republic in 1956, and Revolution for National Salvation Day on June 30, which celebrates the 1989 military coup that brought al-Bashir to power.Rogaia Mustafa Abusharaf, Transforming Displaced Women in Sudan: Politics and the Body in a Squatter Settlement (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009), 27., eDiplomat, “National Days,” 2016, http://www.ediplomat.com/dc/national_days.htm One concern for visitors to Sudan is that activist groups like to generate publicity on special days. It is difficult to predict on which day such activity might occur, but it is wise to avoid public gatherings on days following important anniversaries: Africa Freedom Day (May 25), South Sudan’s Independence Day (July 9), and the founding of the rebel group SPLM/A (May 15). Dos and Don’ts Do sit in a chair or on the ground without showing the soles of your shoes. Do use your whole hand, palm down, to call someone toward you. Motion toward yourself. Do greet your host warmly when you are a guest. Do wave when greeting someone. Do nod your head down to convey “yes” and up to convey “no.” Do pass or accept items with your right hand or both hands. Don't cross your legs so that the bottoms of your feet show, especially to someone who is regarded as an elder, as this is extremely offensive. Don't comment on a host’s standard of living. Don't use your index finger to point at a person. Don't use the “A-OK” sign. Don't use one finger to beckon someone. Don't pass or accept items with only your left hand. This is considered offensive and unclean. Don't wag your finger at someone. This gesture is considered threatening and offensive. Don't use profanity.